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Thursday, July 30, 2009
Granite - Superior Quality
Granite is very strong and durable stone. It takes good polish, It is composed chiefly of quartz and feldspar mixed with particles of mica. The colour depends upon the
Absolute Black........................................................................................................... Galaxy Black
predominant constituent of feldspar.
It is popularly used as architectural stone for interior and exterior walls, floors and monumental stone etc.
Absolute Black........................................................................................................... Galaxy Black
predominant constituent of feldspar.
It is popularly used as architectural stone for interior and exterior walls, floors and monumental stone etc.
Indian - Black........................................................................................................... Coffee Brown 
Granite is a common, coarse-grained, light-colored, hard igneous rock consisting chiefly of quartz, orthoclase or microcline, and mica, used in monuments and for building. Granite stone is typically hardest of the dimensional stones and can effectively withstand the vagaries of nature. Granite tiles are quite literally, as old as the earth, perfect for use in residential and commercial flooring applications. Granite Slabs are ideal for fabricating granite counter tops, flooring, retaining walls and landscaping around a center fountain/pond.
Granite tiles are available in multiple sizes and colors. Granite tiles are more expensive than slate, because of its long lasting durability. Granite tiles are used in laying floor, making fireplaces, counter tops and are also engraved in the walls of kitchen and bathroom.
Granite tiles are quite literally, as old as the earth, perfect for use in residential and commercial flooring applications. We are the leading manufacturer exporter and suppliers of granite stones, granite tiles, granite slabs.
Granite slabs are thick, broad pieces of stone,comparatively larger than tiles.Granite slabs are mostly used for laying floors in huge halls and as counter tops and table tops.Granite is available in varying combinations, colors and patterns.Granite Slabs are ideal for fabricating granite, flooring, retaining walls and landscaping around a center fountain/pond.
Monday, July 27, 2009
Kaolinite- China Clay
Kaolinite aka China Clay
Kaolinite is a Clay Mineral with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered Silicate Material, with one Tetrahedral sheet linked through Oxygen Atoms to one Octahedral sheet of Alumina Octahedra. Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as china clay or kaolin.
The name is derived from Gaoling or Kao-Ling ("High Hill") in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, China. Kaolinite was first described as a Mineral Species in 1867 for an occurrence in the Jari River basin of Brazil.
Kaolinite is one of the most common minerals; it is mined, as kaolin, in Brazil, France, United Kingdom, Germany, India, Australia, Korea, the People's Republic of China, the Czech Republic and the United States.
Kaolinite has a low Shrink Well- Capacity and a low Cation Exchange Capacity (1-15 meq/100g.) It is a soft, earthy, usually white mineral (dioctahedral phyllosilicate Clay), produced by the chemical weathering of aluminium silicate minerals like Feldspar. In many parts of the world, it is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct Rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow or light orange colours. Alternating layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, USA.
Predominance in tropical soils
Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the chemical weathering of rocks in hot, moist climates - for example in tropical rainforest areas. Comparing soils along a gradient towards progressively cooler or drier climates, the proportion of kaolonite decreases, while the proportion of other clay minerals such as illite (in cooler climates) or smectite (in drier climates) increases. Such climatically-related differences in clay mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in the geological past, where ancient soils have been buried and preserved.
Structural transformations
Kaolin-type clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air at atmospheric pressure. Endothermic dehydroxylation (or alternatively, dehydration) begins at 550-600 °C to produce disordered metakaolin, Al2Si2O7, but continuous hydroxyl loss (-OH) is observed up to 900 °C and has been attributed to gradual oxolation of the metakaolin (Bellotto et al., 1995). Due to historic disagreement concerning the nature of the metakaolin phase, extensive research has led to general consensus that metakaolin is not a simple mixture of amorphous silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3), but rather a complex amorphous structure that retains some longer-range order (but not strictly crystalline) due to stacking of its hexagonal layers (Bellotto et al., 1995).
2 Al2Si2O5(OH)4 —> 2 Al2Si2O7 + 4 H2O
Further heating to 925-950 °C converts metakaolin to a defect aluminuim-silicon spinel, Si3Al4O12, which is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure:
2 Al2Si2O7 —> Si3Al4O12 + SiO2
Upon calcination to ~1050 °C, the spinel phase (Si3Al4O12) nucleates and transforms to mullite, 3 Al2O3 · 2 SiO2, and highly crystalline cristobalite, SiO2:
3 Si3Al4O12 —> 2 Si2Al6O13 + 5 SiO2
Uses
Kaolin is used in Ceramics, Medicine, Coated Paper as a Food Additive, in ToothPaste, as a light fusing material in white incandescent Light Bulbs, and in Cosmetics. It is generally the main component in Porcelain.
It is also used in Paint to extend titanium dioxide (TiO2) and modify gloss levels; in Ruber for semi-reinforcing properties and in adhesives to modify Rheology.
The largest use is in the production of paper, including ensuring the gloss on some grades of paper. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as dry powder, semi-dry noodle or as liquid Slurry.
A more recent, and more limited, use is as a specially formulated spray applied to especially organic fruits, vegetables, and other vegetation to repel or deter insect damage, and at least in the case of apples, to prevent sun scald. A traditional use is to soothe an upset Stomach, similar to the way Parrots (and later, humans) in South America originally used it.
Kaolin is, or has been, used as the active substance in liquid anti-diarrhea medicines such as Kaomagma and Kaopectate. Such medicines were changed away from aluminium substances due to a scare over Alzheimer's Disease, but have since changed back to compounds containing aluminium as they are more effective. Kaolin is known in Traditional Chinese Medicine as an herb under the name 赤石脂 (chì shí zhī), "crimson stone resin" in a direct translation. It's taste is sweet, astringent and warm. In TCM it's used for restricting leakage from intestines and stopping diarrhea, blood containment and stopping bleeding, wounds healing.
Sunday, July 26, 2009
India Set To Launch Nuclear - Powered SUBMARINE
India has launched its first indigenously built nuclear-powered submarine capable of firing ballistic missiles. The submarine, once in service, will give the country the capability to fire nuclear weapons from sea besides land and air.
The Indian navy flooded a dry dock in the southern port city of Visakhapatnam to send out the nuclear-powered submarine named Arihant, for extensive sea trials in the Bay of Bengal.
 |
| Indian PM Manmohan Singh speaks during the launch ceremony of India's first nuclear-powered submarine, INS Arihant at Vishakhapatnam in India, 26 Jul 2009 |
It has taken India nearly two decades to develop the Arihant, which means "Destroyer of Enemies." It has been built with technical assistance from Russia.
Defense officials say Arihant is powered by a nuclear reactor, and will be armed with ballistic missiles. It will carry a crew of about 100 men.
New Delhi-based National Maritime Foundation director Uday Bhaskar says the launch is an important technological step putting India in a small group of nations capable of designing and building nuclear-powered submarines.
But he stresses that it could be several years before the submarine is inducted into the Indian navy.
"My sense is that it would take India anything between three and five years if everything moves as per plan and design to have a submarine that would be deemed operationally credible with nuclear propulsion," said Bhaskar. "What is significant about the launch is that India now has publicly acknowledged its quest to acquire a nuclear submarine and has shown it has the ability to design and build such a platform."
India already has fighter aircraft and missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads. If all goes well with the trials, the Arihant will give India an underwater ballistic missile capability after the tests are conducted.
After launching the submarine, Prime Minister Singh said "we do not have any aggressive designs nor do we seek to threaten anyone." But he said that the sea is increasingly becoming relevant in the context of India's security interests, making it necessary to "re-adjust our military preparedness to this changing environment.'
The Arihant puts India in a small group of five nations which have built nuclear submarines. These are the United States, China, Britain, France and Russia.
India plans to build a fleet of five nuclear-powered submarines. Defense experts have estimated that India has between 50 and 100 nuclear warheads.
Wednesday, July 22, 2009
London - At a Glance
London is the de facto capital of the United Kingdom. It has been an influential city for two millennia and its history goes back to its founding by the Romans. The city's core, the ancient City of London, still retains its limited Medieval boundaries. However, since at least the nineteenth century, the name "London" has also referred to the whole metropolis that has developed around it. Today the bulk of this conurbation forms the London Metropolitan Region and the Greater London administrative area, with its own elected Mayor and Assembly.
London is one of the world's foremost Global Cities alongside New York City and the largest Financial Centre alongside New York City. Central London is home to the headquarters of more than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and more than 100 of Europe's 500 largest. The city's influence in Politics, Education, Entertainment, Media, Fashion, the Arts and Culture in general contributes to its global position. It is a major tourist destination for both domestic and overseas visitors. London hosted the 1908 and 1948 Summer Olympic
s and will host the 2012 Summer Olympics.
London contains four World Heritage Sites: The Tower of London; The Historic Settlement of Greenwich; The Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew; and the site comprising The Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey and St. Margaret's Church.
London has a wide range of peoples, cultures, and religions, and more than 300 languages are spoken within the city. In July 2007, it had an official population of 7,556,900 within the boundaries of Greater London making it the most populous muinicipality in the European Union. The Greater London Urban Area (the second largest in the EU) has a population of 8,278,251. while the Metropolitan Area (the largest in the EU) has an estimated total population of between 12 million and 14 million. The public transport network, administered by Transport of London, is the most extensive in the world, London Heathrow Airport is the world's busiest airport by number of international passangers and the airspace is the busiest of any city in the world. London was named by New York Magazine as the capital of the world for the 21st century.
History :-
The etymology of London remains a mystery. The earliest etymological explanation can be attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae. The name i
s described as originating from King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. This would have had a derivational form Kaerludein, which, by aphaeresis, eventually developed as London. Many other theories have been advanced over the centuries, most of them deriving the name from Welsh or British. It is also believed the name "London" comes from the celtic word "Lyndon," which means "shadowy waters," referring to the Thames River.
Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans in 43 AD as Londinium, following the Roman Conquest of Britain. This Londinium lasted for just seventeen years. Around 61, the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed this first London, burning it to the ground. The next, heavily planned incarnation of the city prospered and superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman Province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of around 60,000.
By the 600s, the Anglo - Saxons had created a new settlement called Lundenwic approximately 1,000 yards (910 m) upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden. It is likely that there was a harbour at the mouth of the River Fleet for fishing and trading, and this trading grew until the city was overcome by the Vikings and forced to relocate the city back to the location of the Roman Londinium to use its walls for protection. Viking attacks continued to increase around the rest of South East England, until 886 when Alfred the Great recaptured London and made peace with the Danish leader, Guthrum. The original Saxon city of Lundenwic became Ealdwic ("old city"), a name surviving to the present day as Aldwych, which is in the modern City of 
Westminster.
In a retaliatory attack, Ethelred's army achieved victory by pulling down London Bridge with the Danish garrison on top, and English control was re-established. Canute took control of the English throne in 1016, controlling the city and country until 1035, when his death resulted in a reversion to Saxon control under his pious stepson Edward the Confessor, who re-founded Westminster Abbey and the adjacent Palace of Westminster. By this time, London had become the largest and most prosperous city in England, although the official seat of government was still at Winchester.
Following a victory at the Battle of Hastlings, William the Conqueror the then Duke of Normandy was crowned the King of England in the newly finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William granted the citizens of London special privileges, while building what is now known as the Tower of London, in the south-east corner of the city, to keep them under control.
In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster, the prime royal residence throughout the Middle Ages. Westminster became the seat of the royal court and government (persisting until the present day), while its distinct neighbour, the City of London, was a centre of trade and commerce and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. London grew in wealth and population during the Middle Ages. In 1100 its population was around 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. King Edward I issued an edict in 1290, expelling all Jews from England. Before the edict, there was an increasing population of Jews, whereas after this time, the population of Jews began to drop considerably. Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population. Apart from the invasion of London duri
ng the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, London remained relatively untouched by the various civil wars during the Middle Ages, such as the first and second Barons' Wars and the Wars of the Roses.
After the successful defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, political stability in England allowed London to grow further. In 1603, James VI of Scotland came to the throne of England, essentially uniting the two countries. His enactment of harsh anti-catholic laws made him unpopular, and an assasination attemptwas made on 5 November 1605—the well-known Gunpowder Plot.
Plague caused extensive problems for London in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague in 1665–1666 that killed 70,000 to 100,000 people, up to a fifth of London's population. This was the last major outbreak in England, possibly thanks to the disastrous fire of 1666.
The Great Fire of London broke out in the original City and quickly swept through London's wooden buildings, destroying large swathes of the city. A first hand narrative of both pl
ague and fire was provided by Sir Samuel Pepys. Rebuilding took over ten years, largely under direction of a Commission appointed by King Charles II, chaired by Sir Christopher Wren, and supervised by Robert Hooke as newly appointed Surveyor of London.
Following London's growth in the 18th century, it became the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925. Rising Traffic Congestion on city centre roads led to the creation of the world's first rapid transit. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion. It was then replaced by the County of London, overseen by the London County Council, London's first elected city-wide administration.
Local Government :-
The administration of London is formed of two tiers — a city-wide, strategic tier and a local tier. City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorit
ies. The GLA consists of two elected parts; the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, who scrutinise the Mayor's decisions and can accept or reject his budget proposals each year. The GLA was set up in 2000 to replace the similar Greater London Council (GLC) which had been abolished in 1986. The headquarters of the GLA and the Mayor of London is at City Hall; the current Mayor is Boris Johnson. The 33 local authorities are the councils of the 32 London Boroughs and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for local services not overseen by the GLA, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection.National Government :-
London is an important city because the Government of the United Kingdom is located around the Palace of Westminster. Many government departments are located close to Parliament, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street. The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments.
Geography:-
Scope:-
London can be geographically defined in a number of ways; the situation was once open to periodic legal debate. At London's core is the small, ancient City of London which is commonly known as 'the City' or 'the Square Mile'. London's metropolitan area grew considerably during the Victorian Era and again during the Interwar Period, but expansion halted in the 1940s because of World War II and Green Belt legislation, and the area has been largely static since. The London region of England, also commonly known as Greater London, is the area administered by the Greater London Authority. The urban sprawl of the conurbation — or Greater London Urban Area — covers a roughly similar area, with a slightly larger population. Beyond this is the vast London Commuter Belt.
Forty percent of Greater London is covered by the London Postal District, within which 'LONDON' forms part of the postal address. The London Telephone Area Code covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included. The area within the orbital M25 Motorway is sometimes used to define the "London area" and the Greater London boundary has been aligned to it in places. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer 
London. Informally, the city is split into North, South, East, West and often also Central London.
The Metropolitan Police District, city-wide Local Government Area and London Transport Area have varied over time, but broadly coincide with the Greater London boundary. The Romans may have marked the centre of Londinium with the London Stone, still visible on Cannon Street. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London (traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross, near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall) are approximately 51*30'29"N oo*o7'29" W/51.5o8o6*No.12472*W. Trafalgar Square has also become a point for celebrations and protests.
Status :-Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have City Status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are the Ceremonial Counties. The current area of Greater London was historically part of the counti
es of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey,Essex and Hertfordshire. Unlike most capital cities, London's status as the capital of the UK has never been granted or confirmed officially — by statue or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through Constitutional Convention, making its position as de,facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten Constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. According to the Collins English Dictionary definition of 'the seat of government,' London is not the capital of England, as England does not have its own government. However according to the Oxford English Reference dictionary definition of 'the most important town...' and many other authorities, London is the capital of England.Topography :-
Greater London covers an area of 607 square miles (1,570 km2). Its primary geographical feature is the Thame
s, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hills, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width. Since the Victorian Era it has been extensively embanked, and many of its London Tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in High Water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-Glacial Rebound. In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2030, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.Climate :-
London has a temperate marine climate (Koppen Climate Classif
ication Cfb), like much of the British Isles, so the city rarely sees extremely high or low temperatures. Summers are warm with average high temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F) - 24 °C (75 °F) and lows of 11 °C (52 °F) - 14 °C (57 °F). But temperatures can exceed 25 °C (77 °F) on many days, and in almost every year they exceed 30 °C (86 °F) on some days. The highest temperature ever recorded was 39 °C (102 °F) on 10th August 2003. Winters in London are chilly, but rarely below freezing with daytime highs around 8 °C (46 °F) - 12 °C (54 °F), while spring has mild days and cool evenings. The lowest ever recorded temperature is −10 °C (14.0 °F). Autumn is usually mild but often unsettled as colder air from the north and warmer air from the south meet, occasionally deep depressions form like the Great Storm of 1987.
London is a relatively dry city with regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year, with average precipitation of 583.6 millimetres (22.98 in) every year. Snow is relatively uncommon, particularly because heat from the urban area can make London up to 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the surrounding areas in winter. Some Snowfall, however, is usually seen up to a few times a year. The Snowfall of February 2009 was the heaviest London had seen for 18 years. London is in USDA Hardiness Zone 9, and AHS Heat Zone 2.
In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th, London was noted for its dense fogs and smogs. Following the deadly Great Smog of 1952, the Clean Air Act 1956 was passed, leading to the decline of such severe pollution in the capital.
Districts :-
London's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names (e.g. Bloomsbury, Knightsbridge, Mayfair, Whitechapel, Fitzrovia). These are either informal designations, or reflect the names of superseded villages, parishes and city wards. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but often with no modern official boundaries. However, since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London Boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.
The City of London is one of the world's three largest financial centres (alongside New York and Tokyo) with a dominant role in several international financial markets, including cross-border bank lending, international bond issuance and trading, foreign-exchange trading, over-the-counter derivatives, fund ma
nagement and foreign equities trading. It also has the world's largest insurance market, the leading exchange for dealing in non-precious metals, the largest spot gold and gold lending markets, the largest ship broking market, and more foreign banks and investment houses than any other centre. The City has its own governance and boundaries, giving it a status as the only completely autonomous local authority in London. London's new financial and commercial hub is the Docklands area to the east of the City, dominated by the Canary Wharf complex. Other businesses locate in the City of Westminster , the home of the UK's National Government and the well-known Westminster Abbey.
The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, with locations such as Oxford Street, Leicester Square, Covent Garden and Piccadilly Circus acting as tourist magnets. The West London area is known for fashionable and expensive residential areas such as Notting Hill, Knightsbridge and Chelsea — where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds. The average price for all properties in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is £894,000 with similar average outlay in most of Central London.
The eastern region of London contains the East End and East London. The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, Brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which is being deve
loped into the Olympic Park for the 201
2 Olympics.
Demography :-
With increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the most populous city in the world until overtaken by New York in 1925. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939 immediately before the outbreak of World War 2. There were an estimated 7,556,900 official residents in Greater London as of mid-2007. However, London's continuous Urban Area extends beyond the borders of G
reater London and was home to 8,278,251 people in 2001, while its wider Metropolitan Area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definiti
on use. According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and the metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe (or third if Istanbul is included).
The region covers an area of 609 square miles (1,580 km2). The population density is 12,331 inhabitants per square mile (4,761 /km²), more than ten times that of any other British Region. In terms of population, London is the 25th Largest City and the 17th Largest Metropolitan region in the world. It is also ranked 4th in the world in number of billionaires (United States Dollars) residing in the city. London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow.
Ethnic Groups:-
According to the Office for National Statistics based on 2006 estimates, 58.0% of the 7.5 million inhabitants of London were classed as the indigenous White British, 2.5% were White Irish and 8.9% were classified as "Other White" - the majority of whom are Greeks, Italians and Germans. Some 13.1% of people are of South Asians descent, the largest are Indians (6.5%), then Bangladeshis (2.3%), Pak
istanis (2.3%), and 2% "Other Asian" (mostly SriLankan and others). 10.7% of people are Black (around 5% are Black African, 5% as Black Caribbean, 0.7% as "Other Black"). 3.5% are of Mixed Race; 1.5% are Chinese; and 1.5% of people belong to another ethnic group. 30% of inha
bitants were born outside the European Union. The Irish born, from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, number approximately 250,000 and are the largest group born outside of Great Britain.
In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken and more than 50 non-indigenous communities which have a population of more than 10,000 in London. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, as of 2006, London's foreign-born population is 2,288,000 (31%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997. The 2001 census showed that 27.1% of Greater London's population were born outside the UK, and a slightly higher proportion were classed as non-white. As of 2008, 40% of London's total population was from an Ethnic Minority group. Across London, Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to f
our.
The table to the right shows the 'Country of Birth' of London residents in 2001, the date of the last UK Sensus. (Top 21). Note that a portion of the German-born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany.
Religion :-
The majority of Londoners - 58.2% - identify themselves as Christians. This is followed by those of No Religion (15.8
%), Muslims (8.5%), Hindus (4.1%), Jews (2.1%), Sikhs (1.5%), Buddhists (0.8%), Pagans/Wiccans (0.3%) and other (0.2%), though 8.7% of people did not answer this question in 
the 2001 Census.
London has traditionally been dominated by Christianity, and has a large number of Churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, which is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Whales. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is very low within the Anglican denomination, although church attendance, particularly at Evangelical Anglican churches in London, has started to increase.
London is also home to sizeable Muslim, Hindu, Sikh and Jewish communities. Many Muslims live in Tower Hamlets and Newham; the most important Muslim edifice is London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park. London's large Hindu community is found in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter of which is home to one of Europe's largest Hindu Temples, Neasden Temples. Sikh communities are located in East and West London, which is also home to the largest Sikh temple in the world outside India. The majority of British Jews live in London, with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Hendon and Edgware in North London. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe, overtaking Ilford synagogue (also in
London) in 1998. The community set up the London Jewish Forum in 2007 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.
Economy :-
London is a major centre for international business and commerce and is o
ne of three "command centres" for the World Economy (with New York City and Tokyo). According to 2005 estimates by the Pricewatershouse Coopers accounting firm, London has the 6th largest city economy in the world after Tokyo, Newyork City, Los Angeles,Chicago and Pari
s. London generates approximately 20% of the UK's GDP (or $446 billion in 2005); while t
he economy of the London Metropolitan Area — The Second Largest in Europe — generates approximately 30% of the UK's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion i
n 2005). London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world and vies with New York City as the most important location for international finance.
London's success as a Service Industry and business centre can be attributed to factors such as English being the native and dominant language of business, close relationship with the U.S. and various countries in Asia. Other factors include English Law being the most important and most used contract Law in international business and the multi cultural infrastructure. Government policies such as low taxes, particularly for foreigners (non-UK domiciled residents do not get taxed on their foreign earnings), a business friendly environment, good transport infrastructure and a deregulated economy with little intervention by the government have all contributed to London's economy becoming more service based. Over 85% (3.2 million) of the employed population of
Greater London work in service industries. Another half a million employees resident in Greater London work in manufacturing and construction, almost equally divided between both.
London's largest industry remains finance, and its Financial Exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of Payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. Lo
ndon has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. London is home to banks, brokers, insurers and legal and accounting firms. A second, smaller financial district is developing at Canary Wharf to the east of the city which includes the global headquarters of HSBC, Reuters, Barclays and the Magic Circle, which includes Clifford Chance, the largest law firm in the world. London handled 31% of global currency transactions in 2005[update] — an average daily turnover of US$753 billion — with more US dollars traded in London than New York, and more Euros traded than in every other city in Europe combined.
More than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies are headquartered in central London. Over 70% of the FTSE 100 are located within London's metropolitan area, and 75% of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London. The City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London Insurance market. Along with Professional Services, media companies are concentrated in London and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector (after c
entral banking, the most competitive sector). The
BBC is a key employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers are edited in London, having traditionally been associated with Fleet Street in the city; they are now primarily based around Canary Wharf.
Science and research and development are playing an increasingly important role in shaping the economy of modern London with 1,340 million euros of public funding, 25 research institutes and medical schools and 23 National Health Service hospitals. The city has 175,000 health-care professionals, 6,000 scientists specialising in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology and, yearly, 80,000 medical and science students studying at universities and colleges. London's private concerns conducting scientific research, as many as 100 in the life science sector alone in 2008, are growing in number twice as fast as in the rest of the United Kingdom.
Due to its prominent global role, London has been hit hard by the global financial crisis of 2008 and 2009. The City of London estimates that 70,000 jobs in finance will be cut within barely a year. Several foreign banks have started to move off employees from London to their national financial centres, notably Dresdner Kleinwort, BNP Paribas and Santander. Other banks, including UBS, Credit Suisse, Bank of America and Citigroup are primarily cutting their workforce in London.
Tourism is one of London's prime industries and employs the equivalent of 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003, while annual expenditure by tourists is around £15 billion. A study carried out by Euromonitor in October 2007 places London at first place out of 150 of the world's most popular cities, attracting 15.6 million international tourists in 2006. This puts London far ahead of 2nd place Bangkok (10.35 million) and 3rd place Paris (just 9.7 million). London attracts 27 million overnight-stay visitors every year. The Port of London is the second-largest in the United Kingdo
m, handling 53 million tonnes of cargo each year.
Architecture :-
London is too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, having accumulated its buildings over a long period of time and drawn on a wide range of influences. It is, however, mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London Stock Brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster Mouldings. Many grand houses and public buildings (such as the National Gallery) are constructed from Portland Stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, except for a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. The disused (but soon to be rejuvenated) 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St Pancras and Paddington (at least internally).
The density of London varies, with high employment density in the Central Area, high residential densities in inner London and
lower densities in the Suburbs. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is achieved with medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers such as the notable "Gherkin", Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square are usually found in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. Other notable modern 
buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape, and the British Library in Somers town/King's Cross. What was formerly the Millennium Dome , located by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now used as an entertainment venue known as The O2.
The development of tall buildings has been encouraged in the London Plan, which will lead to the erection of many new Skyscrapers over the next decade, particularly in the City of London and Canary Wharf. The 72-storey, 1,017 feet (310 m) "Shard London Bridge" by London Bridge Station, the 945 feet (288 m) Bishopsgate Tower and many other skyscrapers over 500 feet (150 m) are either proposed or approved and could transform the city's skyline. As of July 2008, there are 426 high-rise buildings (between 23 m to 150 m/75 ft to 491 ft) under construction, approved for construction, and proposed for construction in London.
A great many monuments pay homage to people and events in the city. The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated
nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Columns is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of the centre.
Parks and Gardens :-
The largest parks in the central area of London are the Royal Parks of Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens at the western edge of Central London and Regent's Park on the northern edge. This park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is located near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Closer to central London are the smaller Royal Parks of Green Park and St.James Park. Hyde Park in particular is popular for Sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts.
A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenvich Park to 
the south-east and Bushy Park and Richmond Park to the so
uth-west, as well as Victoria Park, East London to the east. Primrose Hill to the north of Regent's Park is a popular spot to view the city skyline. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 791-acre (3.2 km2) Hampstead Heath of North London. This incorporates Kenwood House, the former Stately Home and a popular location in the summer months where classical musical concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks.
Society & Culture
Accent :-
Traditionally the London accent has been given the famous Cockney label, and was similar to many accents of the South East of England, developing a unique form of slang known as Cockney Rhyming Slang. The accent of a 21st century Londoner varies widely; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under 30s however is some fusion of Cockney, Received Pronunciation, and a whole array of 'ethnic' accents, i
n particular Caribbean, which form an accent l
abelled Multicultural London English (MLE).
Leisure & Entertainment :-
Within the City of Westminster, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film Premiers are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's Theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district, and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The United Kingdom's Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, The London Coliseum, Saddler's Well Theatre and the Royal Albert Hall as well as touring the country. Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) long Upper Street, extending Northwards from The Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK. Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long — which makes it the longest shopping street in the world — and home to many shops and department stores including Selfridges. Knightsbridge — home to the Harrods Department Store — lies just to the southwest. London is home to designers Vivenne Westwood, Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris, Milan and New York.
London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnicall
y diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese food restaurants of Chinatown.
There are a variety of regular annual events in the city. The beginning of the year is celebrated with t
he relatively new New Year's Day Parade, while traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday.
Literature & Film :-
London has been the se
tting for many works of literature. The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Two writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire, and Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London. The earlier (1722) A Journal of the Plague Year by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based in London, and some of his work — most notably his play The Alchemist — was set in the state. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centu
ries are the afore-mentioned Dickens novels, and Arthur Cayon Doyle's illustrious Sherlock Holmes stories. A modern writer pervasively influenced by the city is Peter Ackroyd, in works such as London: The Biography, The Lambs of London and Hawksmoor. London was also the setting of Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street.
London has played a significant role in the film industry, and has major studios at Pinewood, Ealing, Shepperton, Elstree and Leavesden, as well as an important special effects and post-production community centred in Soho in Central London. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London. The city also hosts a number of performing arts schools, including The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), the Central School of Film and Drama (alumni: Judi Dench and Laurence Olivier) and the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (alumni: Jim Broadbent). The London Film Festival is held each year in October.
Museums & Art Gal
leries :-
London is Home to many Museums, galleries, and other institutions which are major Tourist att
ractions as well as playing a research role. The Natural History Museum (biology and geology), Science Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum (fashion and design) are clustered in South Kennington's "museum quarter", while the British Museum houses historic artefacts from around the world. The British Library at St Pancras is the UK's National Library, housing 150 million items. The city also houses extensive art collections, primarily in the National Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern.
Music :-
London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and is home to major music corporations, such as EMI and Decca Records, as well as countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. London is home to many orchestras and concert halls such as the Barbican Art Center (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Robert Alebert Hall (BBC Promenade Concerts). London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the Coliseum Theatre.
London is home to the UK's largest pipe organ, at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are found at the cathedrals and major churches.
Several Conservatories are located within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama, and Trinity College of Music.
London has numerous renowned venues for rock and pop concerts, including large arenas such as Earls Court, Wembley Arena and the O2 Arena, as well as nume
rous mid-size venues, such as Briston Academy,
Hammersmith Apollo and The Shehperd's Bush Empire. London also hosts many Music Festivals, including the O2 Wireless Festival.
London is home t
o the first and original
Hard Rock Cafe and the illustrious Abbey Road Studious where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. Musicians such as Bob Marley, Madonna, Rick Astley, Jimi Hendrix and Freddie Mercury have lived in London. A large number of musical artists originate from or are most strongly associated with London, including Iron Maiden, Elton John,George Micheal, David B
owie, Ian Duvy, Ultravox, The Kinks, John Ford (musician) of the Strawbs and The Monks, Adam Faith, The Rolling Stone, The Who, Madness, The Jam, Blur, Phil Collins, ,Rod Stewart Elvis Costello, Dusty Springfield, Queen, Sarah Brightman, The
Yardbirds and The Small Faces. London was instrumental in the development of Punk Music, with figures such as the Sex
Pistols, The Clash, and Vivieene Westwood all based in the city.
More recent artists to emerge from
the London music scene include Placebo, Coldplay, Keane, the Sugababes, The Libertines, Bloc Party, Amy Winehouse, Leona Lewis, Lilly Allen, McFly, The Razorlight, Adele, The Rakes, Dizzee Rascal and Natasha Bedingfield.
London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK Garage, Drum and Bass, Dubset and Grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of hip hop and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Black music station BBC1Xtra was set up to support the rise of homegrown urban music both in London and the rest of the UK.
Sport :-
London has hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1908 and 1948. In July 2005 London was chosen to host the Games in 2012, which will make it the first city in the world to host the Summer Olympics three times. London was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934.
London's most popular sport (for both participants and spectators) is Football. Londo
n has thirteen League football clubs, including five in the Premier League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Fulham, Totten Hotspur and West Ham United London also has four rugby union teams in the Guinness Premiership (London Irish, Saracens , Wasps and Harlequins), although only the Harlequins play in London (all the other three now play outside Greater London, although Saracens still play within the M25). There are two professional rugby league clubs in London - Harleyquins Rugby League who play in the Super League at the Stoop and the National League 2 side the London Skolars (based in Haringey).
Since 1924, the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English National Football Team, and served as the venue for the FA Cup Final as well as
Rugby League's Challenge Cup's final. The new Wembley Stadium serves exactly the same purposes and has a capacity of 90,000. Twickenham Stadium in south-west London is the national Rugby Union stadium, and has a capacity of 84,000 now that the new south stand has been completed.
Cricket in London is served by two Test Cricket grounds Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C) in St
John's Wood, and The Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C) in Kennington. One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbeldon Tennis Championship, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbeldon. Other key events are the annual mass-participation London Marathon which sees some 35,000 runners attempt a 26.2 miles (42.2 km) course around the city, and the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on the River Thames between Putney and Mortlake.
Transport :-
Transport is one of the four areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, however the mayor's financial control is limited and he does not control the heavy rail network, although in November 20
07 he assumed responsibility for the North London Railway as well as several other lines, to form Lo
ndon Overground. The Public Transport network, administered by Transport of London (TFL) is one of the most extensive in the world, but faces congestion and reliability issues, which a large investment programme is attempting to address, including £7 billion (€10 billion) of improvements planned for the Olympics. London has been commended as the city with the best public transport. Cyclin
g is an increasingly popular way to get around London. The London Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision.
Railways :-
The centrepiece of the public transport network is the London Underground — commonly referred to as The Tube — which has eleven interconnecting lines. It is one of the oldest, longest, and most expansive Metro systems in the world, dating from 1863. The system was home to the world's first underground electric line, the City & South London Railway, which began service in 1890. Over three million journeys a day are made on the Underground network, nearly 1 billion journeys each year. The world's longest subway system runs for 244 miles below the streets of London. The London Underground - or tube, as it's known by the locals - carries about 976 million people each year. The city's first underground railroad opened in 1863, and today it operates 500 peak trains and 275 stations. The subway's busiest station is Waterloo, which serves about 46,000 commuters during the morning rush. Throughout the subway system, some 412 escalators and 112 elevators keep commuter traffic moving. The Underground se
rves the central area and most suburbs to the north of th
e Thames, while those to the south are served by an extensive Suburban Rail surface network, due partly to more difficult geology south of the river.
The Docklands Light Railway is a second metro system using smaller and lighter trains, which opened in 1987, serving East London and Greenwich on both sides of the Thames. Commuter and intercity railways generally do not cross the city, instead running into fourteen terminal stations scattered around its historic centre; the exception is the Thameslink route operated by First Capital Connect, with its Bedford to Brighton and Luton to Sutton Since the early 1990s, increasing pressures on the commuter rail and Underground networks have led to increasing demands — particularly from businesses and the City of London Corporation — for Crossrail: a £10 billion east–west heavy rail connection under central London, which was given the green light in early October 2007.
High-speed Eurostar trains link St Pancras International with Lille and Paris in France, and Brussels in Belgium. Journey times to Paris and Brussels of 2h 15 and 1h 51 respectively make London closer to continental Europe than the rest of Britain by virtue of the newly completed High Speed 1 rail link to the Channel Tunnel. From 2009 this line will also allow for high speed domestic travel from Kent into London. The redevelopment of St. Pancras was key to London's Olympic bid, as the station also serves two international airports through Thameslink, and will also provide direct rail links to the Olympic site at Stratford using British Rail Class 395 trains running under the Olympic Javelin name; these will be based on Japanese Shinkansen high-speed trains.
Buses :-
London's Bus Network is one of the largest in the world, running 24 hours a day, with 8,000 buses, 700 bus routes, and over 6 million passenger journeys made every weekday. In 2003, the network's ridership was estimated at over 1.5 billion passenger trips per annum, more than the Underground. Around £850 million is taken in revenue each year.
London has the largest wheelchair accessible network in the world and, from the 3rd quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced. The distinctive red double-decker buses are internationally recognised, and are a trademark of London transport along with Black Cabs and the Tube.
Air :-
London is a major international air transport hub with the largest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the words London Airport in their name, but most traffic passes through one of five major airports. London Heathrow Airport is the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened, and plans are already being considered for a sixth terminal. Similar traffic, with the addition of some flights, is also handled at London Gatwick Airport. London Stansted Airport the main hub for Ryanair, and London Luton Airport cater mostly for low-cost short-haul flights.London City Airport, the smallest a low-cost short-haulnd most central airport, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business Jet traffic. London Southend Airport is developing new service in 2009 in addition to existing business aviation and cargo services. There has been continued controversy over expanding capacity such as building a third runway at Heathrow and building a new airport.
Roads :-
Although the majority of journeys involving Central London are made by public transport, travel in outer London is car-dominated. The Inner Ring Road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (in the suburbs), and the outer orbital Motorway (the M25, outside the built-up area) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes — but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. The M25 is the longest ring-road motorway in the world at 121.5 miles (195.5 km) long. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s. In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay £8 per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of congested central London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a vastly reduced season pass which is renewed monthly and is cheaper than a corresponding bus fare. London is notorious for its traffic congestion, with the M25 motorway the busiest stretch in the country. It has been worked out that the average speed of a car in the rush hour in London is 10.6 mph.
Education :-
Home to a range of universities, colleges and schools, London has a student population of about 378,000 and is a centre of research and development. Most primary and secondary schools in London follow the same system as the rest of England — comprehensive schooling.
With 125,000 students, the University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the United Kingdom and in Europe. It comprises 20 colleges as well as several smaller institutes each with a high degree of autonomy. Constituent colleges have their own admissions procedures, and are effectively universities in their own right, although most degrees are awarded by the University of London rather than the individual colleges. Its constituents include multi-disciplinary colleges such as Royal Holloway, Birkbeck, UCL, King's,Goldsmith's, Queen Mary and more specialised institutions such as the London School of Economics,SOAS, the Royal Academy of Music, the Courtauld Institute of Art and the Institute of Education.
Imperial College London and University College London have been ranked among the top ten universities in the world by The Times Higher Education Supplement: in 2008 Imperial was ranked the 6th best and UCL the 7th best university in the world.
In addition, the London School of Economics is the world‘s leading social science institution for teaching and research, plus has the most international student body of any university in the world today.
A number of colleges are dedicated to the fine arts, including the Royal College of Music, Royal College of Art, and Guildhall School of Music & Drama
London's other universities, such as Brunel University, City University , London Metropolitan University, Middlesex University, University of East London, University of the Arts London, University of Westminster, Kingston University and London South Bank University are not part of the University of London but are still leaders in their field and popular choices among students both nationally and internationally. Some were Polytechnics until they were granted university status in 1992, and others which were founded much earlier. Imperial College London left the federal University of London in 2007. Since the merger of University of North London and London Guildhall University in 2003, London Metropolitan University is the largest unitary university in the capital, with over 34,000 students from 155 countries. London is also known globally for its business education, with the London Business School (ranked 1st in Europe — Business Week) and Cass Business School (Europe's largest finance school) both being top world-rated business schools. In addition there are three international universities: Schiller International University, Richmond University and Regent's College.
Westminster Abbey - London, England. - History
The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, which is almost always referred to popularly and informally as Westminster Abbey, is a large, mainly Gothic Church in Westminster, London, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English, later British and later still (and currently) monarchs of the Commonwealth Realms. It briefly held the status of a Cathedral from 1546–1556, and is a Royal Peculiar.
The Abbey is governed by the Dean and Chapter established under the Elizabethan statute of 1560. It is organised into the College of St Peter, which comprises the Dean and four residentiary Canons (one of whom is also Rector of St Margareta's Church, Westminster, and Speaker's Chaplain), and seventeen other persons who are members ex officio, as well as twelve lay vicars and ten choristers. The seventeen are the Reciever- General and Chapter Clerk the Registrar the Auditor, the Legal Secretary and the Clerk of the Works (the administrative officers). Those more directly concerned with liturgical and ceremonial operations include the Precentor, the Chaplain and Sacrist the Organist, and the (honorary) High Steward and High Bailiff. The Abbey and its property is in the care of the Librarian, the Keeper of the Muniments, and the Surveyor of the Fabric. Lastly, the educational role of the Abbey is reflected in the presence of the Headmaster of the Choir School, the Headmaster and Under Master of Westminster School and the Master of The Queen's Scholars.
History :
According to a tradition first reported by Sulcard in about 1080, the Abbey was first founded in the time of Mellitus (d. 
624), Bishop of London, on the present site, then known as Thorn Ey (Thorn Islnd) based on a late 'tradition' that a fisherman called ' Aldrich ' on the River Thames saw a vision of Saint Peter near the site. This seems to be quoted to justify the gifts of salmon from Thames fishermen that the Abbey received in later years. The proven origins are that in the 960s or early 970s, Saint Dunstan, assisted by King Edgar, planted a community of Benedictine Monks, here. A stone Abbey was built around 1045–1050 by King Edward the Confessor as part of his palace there: it was consecrated on December 28' 1065 only a week before the Confessor's death and subsequent funeral and burial. It was the site of the last coronation prior to the Norman Invasion that of his successor King Harold. It was later rebuilt by Henry III from 1245, who had selected the site for his burial.
The only extant depiction of the original Abbey, in the Romanesque style that is called Norman in England, together with the adjacent Palace of Westminster, is in the Bayeux Tapestry. Increased endowments supported a community increased from a dozen monks in Dunstan's original foundation, to about eighty monks.
The Abbot and learned monks, in close proximity to the Royal Palace of Westminster, the seat of government from the later twelfth century, became a powerful force in the centuries after the Norman Conquest: the Abbot was often employed on royal service and in due course took his place in the House of Lords as of right. Released from the burdens of spiritual leadership, which passed to the reformed Cluniac Movement, after the mid-tenth ce
ntury, and occupied with the administration of great landed properties, some of which lay far from Westminster, "the Benedictines achieved a remarkable degree of identification with the secular life of their times, and particularly with upper-class life", Barbara Harvey concluded, to the extent that her depiction of daily life provides a wider view of the concerns of the English gentry in the High and Late Middle Ages. The proximity of the Palace of Westminster did not extend to providing monks or abbots with high royal connections; in social origin the Benedictines of Westminster were as modest as most of the order. The abbot remained Lord of the Manor of Westminster as a town of two to three thousand persons grew around it: as a consumer and employer on a grand scale the monastery helped fuel the town economy, and relations with the town remained unusually cordial, but no enfranchising charter was issued during the Middle Ages. The abbey built shops and dwellings on the west side, encroaching upon the sanctuary.
The Abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings, but none were buried there until Henry III intensely devoted to the cult of the Confessor, rebuilt the Abbey in Anglo - French Gothic Style as a shrine to honour St Edward the Confessor and as a suitably regal setting for Henry's own Tomb, under the highest Gothic nave in England. The Confessor's Shrine subsequently played a great part in his canonisation. The work continued between 1245-1517 and was largely finished by the architect Henry Yevele in the reign of King Richard II , Henry VII added a Perpendicular Style chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1503 (known as the Henry VII Chapel). Much of the stone came from Caen, in France (Cean Stone), the Isle of Portland (Portland Stone) and the Loire Valley region of France (Tuffeau Limestone).
In 1535, the Abbey's annual income of £2400-2800 during the assessment attendant on the Dissolution of the Monasteries rendered it second in wealth only to Glastonbury Abbey. Henry VIII had assumed direct royal control in 1539 and granted the Abbey cathedral status by charter in 1540, simultaneously issuing letters patent establishing the Diocese of Westminster. By granting the Abbey cathedral status Henry VIII gained an excuse to spare it from the destruction or dissolution which he inflicted on most English abbeys during this period. Westminster was a cathedral only until 1550. The expression "robbing Peter to pay Paul" may arise from this period when money meant for the Abbey, which was dedicated to St Peter, was diverted to the treasury of St Paul's Cathedral.
The Abbey was restored to the Benedictines under the Catholic Queen Mary, but they were again ejected under Queen Elizabeth I in 1559. In 1579, Elizabeth re-established Westminster as a "Royal Peculiar"—a church responsible directly to the Sovereign, rather than to a diocesan bishop—and made it the Collegiate Church of St Peter, (that is a church with an attached chapter of Canons, headed by a dean). The last Abbot was made the first Dean. It suffered damage during the turbulent 1640s, when it was attacked by Puritan iconoclasts, but was again protected by its close ties to the state during the Common Wealth period. Oliver Cromwell was given an elaborate funeral there in 1658, only to be disinterred in January 1661 and posthumously hanged from a nearby gibbet.
The abbey's two western towers were built between 1722 and 174
5 by Nicholas Hawksmoor constructed from Portland Stone to an early example of a Gothic Revival design. Further rebuilding and restoration occurred in the 19th century under Sir George Gilbert Scott. A Narthex for the west front was designed by Sir Edward Lutyens in the mid C20 but was not executed.
Until the 19th century, Westminster was the third seat of learning in England, after Oxford and Cambridge. It was here that the first third of the King James Bible Old Testament and the last half of the New Testament were translated. The New English Bible was also put together here in the 20th century. Westminster suffered minor damage during the Blitz on November 15, 1940.
Tuesday, July 21, 2009
Solar Eclipse July 2009
The astronomical event of the summer, if not for this entire year, occurs this Wednesday, July 22: A total eclipse of the sun visible in parts of India and China.
In fact, this will be one of the very best solar eclipses of the 21st century thanks to the near-coinciding of three events:
First, the moon arrives at perigee – the nearest point in its orbit relative to Earth – on July 21; a distance of 222,128 mi (357,463 km). Back on July 3, the Earth was at its farthest point from the sun (called aphelion). So while in some configurations the moon might barely cover the sun, this time the moon will appear 8-percent larger than the sun in terms of angular size, which is what we see in the sky.
Second, the moon will arrive at new moon phase on July 22.
And third, just 75-minutes after arriving at new phase, the moon reaches the descending node of its orbit, a point where it can come directly between the Earth and the sun cast its dark cone of shadow (called the umbra) upon the Earth's surface. The end result will be the Solar Eclipse with the longest duration of totality until the year 2132.
India's view The path of the moon's dark umbral shadow, from where the panoply of phenomena associated with that magic word "totality" can be seen, will first touch the Earth over the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Khambhat (formerly the Gulf of Cambay), roughly between Ahmadabad to the north and Mumbai to the south. The shadow then sweeps northeast across central India. The path of totality is a narrow swath, yet in crossing India, it could be visible to at least 13-million people (probably a very conservative estimate). The population centers range in size from the 4 million inhabitants of the metropolitan area of Surat – practically on the eclipse center line – to the 130,000 in the city of Darjeeling, internationally famous for its tea industry and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, down to countless smaller communities and hamlets. Unfortunately, monsoon conditions typically prevail during July and the chances of getting a clear view of the sun is only 15 percent, based on climate records. The moon's dark shadow will also sweep over the base of the Himalaya range in India, the Hindu Kingdom of Nepal, and Bhutan and will pass a scant 75 miles ( Next stop, China The umbra will then cut a west-to-east path across the middle of the People's Republic of China, the most densely populated region on Earth. In fact, four of China's ten largest cities are inside the totality zone. Among the many large cities that will experience totality, is Shanghai, the largest in the People's Republic and with a population of over 14 million, recognized as the sixth largest city in the world. And yet, within the sprawling metropolitan region that encompasses the municipality of Chongqing – also inside of the totality path – there are estimated to be nearly 32 million people! Certainly, when the umbra sweeps through here beginning at 01:13 UT (9:13 a.m. local time in China), more people will be experiencing the spectacle of a total solar eclipse at one moment then at anytime in recorded history! Chengou (population nearly 10 million) and Wuhan (over 7 million) are also in the path of total eclipse. All told, at least 85-million – perhaps the actual figure is closer to 100 million people . . . will be plunged into darkness as the core of the moon's shadow races through China. Prospects for clear weather in China is about 30 to 40-percent, but offsetting these modest statistics for fair weather is the probability for haze and industrial smoke, creating smog, especially in Shanghai. After departing China, the umbra moves out over the East China Sea, eventually passing over some of the Ryukyu (or Nansei) Islands of Japan which form an archipelago extending southwestward from Kyushu towards Taiwan. About 200 miles (325 km) east-southeast of Iwo Jima is the point of greatest eclipse. The umbra attains a maximum width of 161 miles (259 km), with totality on the center line reaching a peak of 6 minutes 39 seconds, with the sun almost directly overhead at an altitude of 86-degrees in the sky. Many cruise ships are expected to congregate around this area on eclipse day. Thereafter, the umbra moves on to the southeast, its overall width gradually diminishing, its velocity slowly increasing and the duration of totality correspondingly diminishing. During mid afternoon, the shadow will pass over some of the Marshall and Gilbert Islands. Interestingly, its final landfall is the island of Nikumaroro. There is also a hypothesis that in July 1937 Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan landed and died on Nikumaroro after failing to find Howland Island during the final stages of their ill-fated World Flight. Upon crossing the International Date Line going east, the eclipse date transitions from July 22 back to July 21. The totality path finally comes to its end at 4:18 UT in the South Pacific Ocean amidst the northern group of the Cook Islands. Local Circumstances (and be careful!) The visibility zone for the associated partial eclipse will include much of central and eastern Asia. Eclipses recur in a cycle known as the saros; one saros cycle is equal to 18-years, 11 and one-third days (give or take one day). Hawaii, which was crossed by the totality path of the saros predescessor of this eclipse in July 1991, will see a small partial eclipse toward sunset. And a very small section of Australia, namely the northern and eastern portion of the Cape York Peninsula, juts just far enough into the moon's penumbral shadow to allow for small dent to appear on the lower right edge of the midday sun. For maps depicting the zone of visibility of both the partial and total stages, including a listing of 385 local circumstances for selected cities, go to http://www.eclipse.org.uk/eclipse/0412009/. IMPORTANT: To look at the sun without proper eye protection is dangerous. Even if you are in the path of the total eclipse you will need to protect your eyes during the partial phases. Coming attractions The next total eclipse of the sun will be less than a year from now, on July 11, 2010. The umbral shadow will pa Finally, just as the shadow path is coming to its end, it makes landfall in South America along the rugged shoreline of southern Chile; finally slipping off the Earth's surface in southern Argentina. At its peak, the moon will blot out the sun for 5 minutes 20 seconds. North Americans must wait a bit longer for their chance at a total solar eclipse. On Aug. 21, 2017, the moon's shadow will sweep coast to coast across the contiguous United States, from Oregon, southeastward to South Carolina. It will be the first total solar eclipse for the mainland U.S. since Feb. 26, 1979. 
121 km) south of the summit of Mount Everest where 97-percent of the sun's diameter will be covered. The umbra will also race over northern Bangladesh, extreme eastern India and southern and central Tibet. 
ss chiefly over the open ocean waters of the South Pacific, but will also make contact with Mangaia – the second largest and most southerly of the Cook Islands, a number of small atolls of the Tuamotu Archipelago and later still along the track, the legendary Easter Island.
Monday, July 20, 2009
Statue of Liberty
The Statue of Liberty National Monument officially celebrated her 100th birthday on October 28, 1986. The people of France gave the Statue to the people of the United States over one hundred years ago in recognition of the friendship established during the American Revolution. Over the years, the Statue of Liberty's symbolism has grown to include freedom and democracy as well as this international friendship.
Sculptor Frederic Auguste Bartholdi was commissioned to design a sculpture with the year 1876 in mind for completion, to commemorate the centennial of the American Declaration of Independence. The Statue was a joint effort between America and France and it was agreed upon that the American people were to build the pedestal, and the French people were responsible for the Statue and its assembly here in the United States. However, lack of funds was a problem on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In France, public fees, various forms of entertainment, and a lottery were among the methods used to raise funds. In the United States, benefit theatrical events, art exhibitions, auctions and prize fights assisted in providing needed funds.
Meanwhile in France, Bartholdi required the assistance of an engineer to address structural issues associated with designing such a colossal copper sculpture. Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (designer of the Eiffel Tower) w
as commissioned to design the massive iron pylon and secondary skeletal framework which allows the Statue's copper skin to move independently yet stand upright. Back in America, fund raising for the pedestal was going particularly slowly, so Joseph Pulitzer (noted for the Pulitzer Prize) opened up the editorial pages of his newspaper, "The World" to support the fund raising effort. Pulitzer used his newspaper to criticize both the rich who had failed to finance the pedestal construction and the middle class who were content to rely upon the wealthy to provide the funds. Pulitzer's campaign of harsh criticism was successful in motivating the people of America to donate.
Financing for the pedestal was completed in August 1885, and pedestal construction was finished i
n April of 1886. The Statue was completed in France in July, 1884 and arrived in New York Harbor in June of 1885 on board the French frigate "Isere" which transported the Statue of Liberty from France to the United States. In transit, the Statue was reduced to 350 individual 
pieces and packed in 214 crates. The Statue was re-assembled on her new pedestal in four months time. On October 28th 1886, the dedication of the Statue of Liberty took place in front of thousands of spectators. She was a centennial gift ten years late.
The story of the Statue of Liberty and her island has been one of change. The Statue was placed upon a granite pedestal inside the courtyard of the star-shaped walls of Fort Wood (which had been completed for the War of 1812.) The United States Lighthouse Board had responsibility for the operation of the Statue of Liberty until 1901. After 1901, the care and operation of the Statue was placed under the War Department. A Presidential Proclamation declared Fort Wood (and the Statue of Liberty within it) a National Monument on October 15th, 1924 and the monument's boundary was set at the outer edge of Fort Wood. I
n 1933, the care and administration of the National Monument was transferred to the National Park Service. On September 7, 1937, jurisdiction was enlarged to encompass all of Bedloe's Island and in 1956, the island's name was changed to Liberty Island. On May 11, 1965, Ellis Island was also transferred to the National Park Service and became part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. In May of 1982, President Ronald Reagan appointed Lee Iacocca to head up a private sector effort to restore the Statue of Liberty. Fundraising began for the $87 million restoration under a public/private partnership between the National Park Service and The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., to date the most successful public-private partnership in American history. In 1984, at the start of the Statue's restoration, the United Nations designated the Statue of Liberty as a World Heritage Site. On July 5, 1986 the newly restored Statue re-opened to the public during Liberty Weekend, which celebrated her centennial.
n 1933, the care and administration of the National Monument was transferred to the National Park Service. On September 7, 1937, jurisdiction was enlarged to encompass all of Bedloe's Island and in 1956, the island's name was changed to Liberty Island. On May 11, 1965, Ellis Island was also transferred to the National Park Service and became part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. In May of 1982, President Ronald Reagan appointed Lee Iacocca to head up a private sector effort to restore the Statue of Liberty. Fundraising began for the $87 million restoration under a public/private partnership between the National Park Service and The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., to date the most successful public-private partnership in American history. In 1984, at the start of the Statue's restoration, the United Nations designated the Statue of Liberty as a World Heritage Site. On July 5, 1986 the newly restored Statue re-opened to the public during Liberty Weekend, which celebrated her centennial.
Saturday, July 18, 2009
Five Keys To Wellness
A way of life that involves taking responsibility for one's own well-being by practicing lifestyle habits that promote optimal health. Wellness is multi-faceted and is attainable and maintainable
This will help you focus on the 5 keys to wellness.
Five Keys to Wellness:
Medical Wellness: Your physical health is the foundation of all other aspects of wellness.One of the most important tips for medical wellness is to never go at it alone. Research shows that teaming with a medical professional produces greater, longer lasting results.
Nutritional Wellness: Good Nutrition supports the powerful Health - Producing Capabilities of your Body.
What you eat and how you prepare food are just as important as how much food you eat. In order to support increased physical activity, it is important to provide your body with proper nutrients.
Physical Wellness : Appropriate Physical Activity is a Powerful Source of Health Benefits.
Scientific research confirms that regular, appropriate physical activity is a powerful source of health benefits.
Similar to obesity, lack of exercise is associated with risk of many diseases. It is important, with a doctor's approval, to begin a program that increases exertion gradually, so as to be more sustainable. Exercise should be pleasant, invigorating and fun, not a chore.
Motivational Wellness : Everyone experiences stress, disappointments, and negative emotions. By preparing for bumps in the road of life, we can keep them from negatively impacting your weight loss program and your wellness.
Educational Wellness : A Healthy Mind is always Learning and Open to New Ideas.
Wellness, or the state of being in good health, begins with the desire to be well. Science is discovering new paths to wellness every day, and it is wise to stay abreast of these developments.
LifeStyle Habits
Many lifestyle habits developed in childhood and adolescence (such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and experimentation with tobacco and substance use) can have a major impact on health later in life and contribute to leading causes of death such as heart disease, cancer and diabetes. The scope of what child health psychologists can contribute i
s much broader than many have yet recognized."That means the choices that children and teenagers make early in life, and the activities that they engage in, can have serious implications for their physical health and well-being when they grow up. Because these health-compromising behaviors are typically initiated when a person is young, there is a need to more effectively prevent their onset and reform public health approaches to prevention. That is where child health psychologists can help."
"There is a pressing need to readdress prevention efforts targeted toward our nation's young people and their families, and child health psychologists are well-poised to advance this mission. Specialists in childhood behavior have a lot of good expertise that should now be employed to play a g
reater role in disease prevention."
while there are numerous lifestyle and behavioral prevention programs available both within and outside the public health sector, too few have been designed specifically for younger people.
"Increasingly, the energy in public health is being focused on the lives of children because we know these lifestyle habits form early and may carry forward into adulthood. Child health psychologists and other advocates for children's health need to be more involved at all levels of prevention research, applied work, and policy making in helping young people adopt good self-care."
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